Up to this point in the evolution of human space launch systems, the best we a have been able to do is to put payloads on huge tanks of propellant and blast our way to orbit. Over the years, a variety of different types systems for getting payloads to orbit have been proposed.
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The International Space Station (ISS) is a habitable artificial satellite in low Earth orbit. The first component for the station was launched in 1998 and the last pressurized module was incorporated in 2011. Components are still being launched to be added to the ISS. The ISS is supposed to be in use until at least 2028.
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The exploration of Mars has taken place either in orbit or on the surface. So far, the vehicles that have been sent to Mars and landed on the surface have been wheeled. They have had to navigate across a rough landscape, avoiding many obstacles. Thus, they have been confined to areas which are mostly open and flat.
Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) is an private U.S. aerospace manufacturer and space transportation services company. It was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the stated mission of reducing space transportation costs and enabling the colonization of Mars. SpaceX has developed the Falcon family of launch vehicles and the Dragon family of spacecraft.
One of the big problems for spacecraft in the coldness of space is heat. Whatever parts of the spacecraft are exposed to the direct light of the Sun will begin to heat up. There is also the problem of heat in the spacecraft that needs to be radiated away.
Reaction Engines Limited (REL) is a company based in Culham in Oxforshire, U.K. They are working on a novel propulsion system that can function as both a jet engine for flight in atmosphere and rocket engine for flights in space. The company hopes that the engine they are developing will transform the space launch market as well as permit hypersonic travel to destinations on Earth.
Russia has been working on an anti-satellite weapon since 2015. The missile is called the Nudol or PL19 and it has been tested six times since then. The most recent test took place this month. For this test, the missile was fired from its transporter. There is great concern that Russia may test the new weapon on a real satellite in stable low-Earth orbit.
